Both the "Standard" and the "Tetrahedron
Model" rely on symmetry principles to create unified
theories of the "four forces of physics" (in the sense of Emmy Noether's great
theorem relating symmetry and conservation). But in general
I use the symmetries of the "forest", while the standard model
uses the symmetries of the "trees". Obviously, these cannot be
mutually exclusive categories; in most respects the two theories
complement each other. Another major difference is that I use the
concept of symmetry "debts" to solve qualitative "why" or
conservation problems (Why gravity?
What is the conservation reason that gravity must exist as a force
in the universe?), whereas the "establishment" uses the concept of
symmetry-in-action to solve quantitative "how" or mechanistic
problems (how does gravity produce its effects and how can we
calculate them?). (See: "The 'Tetrahedron
Model' VS the 'Standard Model' of Physics: A Comparison".)
The Electromagnetic Force
Our universe is an electromagnetic universe,
composed of bound and free forms of electromagnetic energy (matter
and light), which are inter-convertible, as demonstrated by the
creation and annihilation of particle-antiparticle pairs in our
accelerators and colliders, as well as numerous astrophysical
processes. This relationships is also theoretically illuminated by
such celebrated formulas as E=mcc (Einstein), E=hv
(Planck-Einstein), and hv=mcc (de Broglie-Planck-Einstein).
Therefore, principles of symmetry in the electromagnetic force (in
both its bound and free forms) are of primary significance for any
theory of force unification.
The most fundamental of these electromagnetic phenomena is the
symmetry gauge "velocity c", the velocity of light, the universal
electromagnetic constant. Einstein showed that "velocity c"
characterizes a symmetric state of free energy. The photon, or
quantum of light (the boson, field vector, or force-carrier of the
electromagnetic field), traveling freely in vacuum at "velocity
c", is the most symmetric state of energy known, carrying no
charges, having no mass, producing no
gravitational field, having no time dimension, and having no
spatial dimension in the direction of motion. In short, the photon
has forever to go nowhere, "traveling" with an effectively
infinite velocity. This is the origin of the photon's "non-local"
energy state, a state of pure spatio-temporal symmetry. The loss
of this symmetric non-local energy state (when free
electromagnetic energy - light - is converted into massive, local,
immobile forms of bound electromagnetic energy - matter) is the
root cause of the gravitational "location" charge, and indeed all
the other charges of matter.
The charges of matter are symmetry debts of light (per Noether's
theorem).
To see this directly, imagine an electron-positron pair. Now
(by some miracle of the weak force) take the positron away and
look at the remaining electron. The energy of the electron is
conserved by its mass, but what is the electric charge for? It was
supposed to produce an annihilation reaction with the positron,
returning the particle pair to the symmetry of light, but now the
charge is "hung", preserved indefinitely by the symmetry principle
of charge conservation. This charge, isolated from its antimatter
complement, is what I refer to as a symmetry debt. Charges produce
forces which demand repayment of the symmetry debt they represent.
And just in case the electric charge should fail to produce the
expected annihilation, there is a "plan B": the gravitational
charge of the electron's mass. This "fail safe" charge will
eventually return the electron's mass to light, if only via the
"Hawking Radiation" of a black hole. It's all very simple, and it
applies directly to our asymmetric universe because antimatter
went missing after the "Big Bang".
The evolution of the universe is the story of the safeguarding and
conservation of matter's energy and symmetry debts (conserving the
quality as well as the quantity of matter's energy content), and
the ongoing conversion of asymmetric bound electromagnetic energy
back to its original symmetric form of light (free electromagnetic
energy) - as in our Sun, the stars, supernovas, quasars, black
holes, and many other astrophysical processes. This is the "big
picture" of the symmetry of the "forest" (the Cosmos), over
and above the symmetry of the "trees" (the atoms), and it provides
a road map to a theory of force unification. With this overview we
don't get lost working our way through an unconnected maze of
atomic details. Naturally, we need the atomic detail (the puzzle
pieces), but we also need a clear prospect of our goal, or we
cannot fit the pieces together.
After "velocity c" and the photon, the second most important
electromagnetic symmetry condition, phenomenon, or symmetry debt
to consider is the electric charge itself (of which the photon is
the "field vector" or force carrier). Electric charge is a major
expression of the symmetry debt of matter, so what is it telling
us? It is (in terms of the "forest") telling us that the entire
realm of antimatter is missing from our universe ("someone has
stolen our tent") - that is, if antimatter were present, charge
symmetry would be restored and the universe of matter and
antimatter would dissolve (explosively) into a universe of perfect
symmetry and light. Another way of looking at this is to recognize
that electric charge is telling us the entire realm of matter is
asymmetric, because it comes with mass, time, gravity, and charge.
Electric charge is a protest against these asymmetric conditions,
and is trying to avoid them by producing annihilation reactions.
The electric charge continues to search for antimatter, and it
will be conserved until it finds antimatter and cancels the
electromagnetic debt of matter - regardless of how long it takes.
This search for symmetry, combined with energy conservation and
entropy (the intrinsic motions of light, time, and gravity), are
the fundamental motivating forces of the universe. Our Cosmos
exists because the conservation of symmetry debts through time -
via the principle of charge conservation - allows it to exist.
There are many other symmetries of the electromagnetic force and
of electromagnetic bound energy that have been known and studied
since the time of Maxwell, beginning of course, with the symmetry
between electric and magnetic fields. There is the global and
local "gauge" symmetry of voltage, phase, and the exchange of
photons (field vectors) between charged particles, the invariance
of Maxwell's equations, the invariance of velocity c, the
invariance and conservation of electric charge, and other effects
due to symmetry at the atomic level of the "trees" which I need
not go into because the "establishment" has already explored it so
thoroughly. I'm more interested in the "forest" symmetries the
"establishment" has either ignored or simply not emphasized,
apparently because they tend to be of a more philosophical, rather
than practical, nature (you can't make money or bombs with them).
(For a technical insight into the connections between the symmetry
phenomena of electromagnetism and spacetime, see the classic text
by: Robert Resnick Introduction to Special Relativity
(Chapt. IV) John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1968.)
Gravity
Another major symmetry debt of matter is expressed
through the gravitational "location" charge. The "location" charge
of gravity derives from the lost "non-local" symmetric energy
state of light when free electromagnetic energy is converted to
bound electromagnetic energy (in any form). Bound energy (atoms,
matter) is massive, immobile, and local, carrying various charges
(symmetry debts) including the gravitational symmetry debt. Bound
energy is 4-dimensional, including the asymmetric time dimension,
whereas free energy (light) is 2-dimensional - lacking both a time
dimension and one spatial dimension in the direction of motion.
The asymmetric time dimension fixes the location of bound energy
in 3-D space (because time is one-way, every point in spacetime is
unique), and time itself is the active principle of gravity's
"location" charge. A gravitational field is the spatial
consequence of the intrinsic motion of time. (See: "Introduction to
Gravity".)
Time moves into history at right angles to all three spatial
dimensions, pulling space along with it. But 3-D space cannot
enter the point-like beginning of the one-D time line of history,
and so the spatial dimensions self-annihilate at the center of
every mass, leaving behind a temporal residue, the metric
equivalent of the annihilated space. The intrinsic (entropic)
one-way motion of this temporal residue into history continues
this self-feeding process forever, or until bound energy is
completely converted to free energy (light) - which has no time
dimension nor the gravitational field to produce one. (See: "Does Light
Produce a Gravitational Field?".) Time and history are an
alternative entropic drive and domain to space, replacing the
intrinsic (entropic) motion of the photon - to accommodate the
unique entropic requirements of bound energy (which is causal,
whereas light is acausal). (See: "Spatial vs Temporal
Entropy".)
Gravity will eventually completely convert bound to free energy
(via the nucleosynthetic pathway of stars, supernovas, quasars,
and finally and completely, via "Hawking Radiation" of black
holes), returning the Cosmos to its original state of symmetric
free energy (light). (Note that gravity always tells us exactly
where the center of mass of any form of bound energy is located,
and exactly how much is present. It will also tell us the average
density if we know the size of the gravitating object.)
There are two important (and astonishing) things to recognize
about the time dimension with respect to its gravitational role as
the "location" dimension, the dimension which specifies the
spatial location of bound energy: 1) time is one-way, hence always
new, never repeating (because of its role in causality); 2) the
universe begins with a "Big Bang" at time zero everywhere in
space, simultaneously. Hence a 4-dimensional point ("event") in
spacetime can be absolutely unique.
Using a financial metaphor, we can think of gravity in its low
energy stages (for example, here on planet Earth) as simply paying
the "interest" on the symmetry debt of mass. That is, gravity
works away continuously but no change in the Earth's mass or its
gravitational force ever occurs. However, at higher energy levels,
as on our Sun, gravity begins to "pay down" the "principle" on the
symmetry debt of mass - mass is actually converted to light and
the gravitational field of the Sun is reduced in consequence. This
process goes to completion (eventually but inexorably) via the
"Hawking Radiation" of black holes.
The electromagnetic and gravitational symmetry debts are related
in that both are long-range force debts that are indifferent to
the specific nature of the matter involved. Furthermore, "in the
beginning", the negative energy of gravity exactly balanced the
positive energy of electromagnetic energy, allowing the universe
to be born as a quantum fluctuation of the "multiverse",
containing zero net energy and zero net charge (due to the
compensating presence of antimatter). The ongoing conversion (in
stars, etc.) of bound to free energy continues to reduce the total
gravitation energy of the universe (since light, having no
"location", produces
no gravitation field), resulting in the apparent
"acceleration" of cosmic expansion (as recently observed).
The remaining charges of matter (strong and weak) are short-range
force debts which play the major role of converting free to bound
energy in the early universe - and continuing today in such
phenomena as heavy element building in stars and the radioactive
decay of heavy atomic nuclei. These are symmetry debts of the
"trees" rather than the "forest", and here my ideas more closely
follow "establishment" lines. I turn to them next.
The Strong and Weak Nuclear
Forces
While the long-range electromagnetic and
gravitational forces are primarily forces concerned with
establishing, maintaining, and conserving the spatio-temporal
metric of the Cosmos, the strong and weak nuclear forces are
primarily concerned with breaking the primordial symmetry of light
and its particle-antiparticle pairs, and creating a matter-only
Cosmos of bound electromagnetic energy. (See: "The Origin of
Matter and Information".) Atomic nuclei contain almost all
of the visible, baryonic, bound electromagnetic energy in the
Cosmos, and atomic nuclei are held together by the strong force.
The obvious questions are: 1) how does the free energy of light
become bound into the mass of an atomic nucleus; and 2) what are
the conservation consequence of the conversion of free to bound
energy?
We can only speculate about the first question, as this conversion
takes place at the unthinkable (and unreproducible) energies of
the early micro-moments of the "Big Bang". Briefly, my presumption
is that all four forces participate in the creation of a
primordial "leptoquark" - a heavy lepton (charged particle similar
to a very heavy electron) which splits into three parts (the
nascent quarks) under its own excessive mass and size. The weak
force rearranges these quarks into electrically neutral threesomes
(similar to a heavy neutron), which then decays asymmetrically to
produce a matter-only Universe. The electrical neutrality of the
primordial leptoquarks is essential to allow the weak force enough
time to produce an asymmetric decay - otherwise everything simply
vanishes into photons via matter-antimatter electrical
annihilation reactions (returning to the unbroken symmetry of
light and matter-antimatter particle pairs). Hence the necessity
for a primordial particle composed of quark sub-units that can
begin as a charged leptoquark-anti-leptoquark pair, but undergo an
internal rearrangement of its subunits to become an electrically
neutral leptoquark subject to an asymmetric weak force decay. We
insist on the leptoquark designation (which amounts to an
internally fractured heavy lepton) to establish the link between
leptons and baryons (baryons are derived from primordial,
internally fractured heavy leptons). During the primordial
asymmetric weak force decay, a leptoquark anti-neutrino is
emitted, balancing the "hidden" number charge of the surviving
baryon; this heavy anti-neutrino is a prime candidate for the
mysterious "dark matter" of the Cosmos. (See: "The Higgs Boson and
the Weak Force IVBs".)
The Strong Force
The strong force arises completely naturally to
hold the three fractured parts of the leptoquark together. (See: "The Strong Force:
Two Expressions".) This fractional elementary charge of the
quarks has also been seen in the "fractional quantum Hall effect",
for which the 1998 Nobel Prize was awarded (See: Robert B.
Laughlin A Different Universe Basic Books 2005). The
strong force also naturally grows stronger as the quarks try to
separate, since a free fractionally charged particle would
threaten the quantum rules of symmetry conservation - only whole
quantum unit charges are allowed. Fractional charges are allowed
only if they remain permanently confined within whole quantum-unit
charged entities - that is, as "virtual" fractional charges inside
baryons. By the same token, the strong force grows weaker as the
quarks move closer together, since the threat to symmetry
conservation posed by their fractional charges is thereby reduced.
This is the celebrated effect of "asymptotic freedom" - also
awarded a Nobel Prize (Gross, Politzer, Wilczek, 2004 - see: Science
15 Oct. 2004 page 400). The strong force is perfectly
understandable from the point of view of symmetry conservation,
and the gluon field is a perfectly composed invariant "gauge"
field of local symmetry. Just as the quarks appear to be the
massive fractured parts of an elementary lepton, so the gluons
seem to be fractional parts of photons - fractured field vectors
of the lepton's fractured electric charge (reminiscent of the
fractional quantum Hall effect). The actual mass of the nucleus is
not contained in the quarks themselves, but rather in the huge
energy of the gluon field which binds them together. (For a
discussion of gravitational VS inertial mass, see: "The Higgs Boson VS
the Spacetime Metric". Further discussions of the role of
the Higgs boson as a gauge of particle mass may be found in: "The Higgs Boson and
the Weak Force IVBs"; see also "Table of the
Higgs Cascade".)
Conservation Consequences
of the Conversion of Free Electromagnetic Energy (light) to
Bound Electromagnetic Energy (matter)
Light is the most symmetric form of electromagnetic
energy, and when it is converted to any form of bound
electromagnetic energy, the loss of light's non-local symmetric
energy state must have consequences - according to Noether's
Theorem. The "quality" of light's energy content is conserved no
less than its quantity. Light's energy is conserved in bound form
as mass (hv=mcc), while light's symmetry is conserved in
the form of charge. The charges of matter are symmetry debts
of light. Electric charge and gravity are the two most
general forms of these symmetry debts. Both are long-range forces
and both have a single ultimate purpose and conservation role - to
return bound energy to its original symmetric form. The electric
charge does this through matter-antimatter annihilation, the
gravitational charge does this through astrophysical processes
such as stars, supernovas, quasars, and finally and completely,
through Hawking's "quantum radiance" of black holes. (See: "Symmetry
Principles of the Unified Field Theory"; see: "A Description of
Gravity".) Gravity and the electromagnetic force are related
through time, velocity c, and the spacetime metric. Time is the
asymmetric dimension which electric charge is trying to avoid in
its annihilation reactions (light has no time dimension but matter
does), but once matter is formed, time itself becomes the active
or motivating principle of the gravitational "location" charge.
Time and gravity modify the spatial metric established by light,
and in the extreme case of the black hole, the spatial
electromagnetic metric is completely converted to a gravitational
temporal metric, in which matter moves at velocity c while light
stands still (g = c). Time and gravity create history, which
functions as an alternative entropy domain for matter's causal
information field, replacing the acausal spatial entropy domain of
light. (See: "Spatial
VS Temporal Entropy".) The intrinsic motion of light is the
spatial entropy drive of free energy, the intrinsic motion of time
is the historical entropy drive of bound energy. The intrinsic
motion of gravity connects these two entropy drives by converting
space into time (as on planet Earth) or vice versa (as in the
stars).
Weak Force
Whereas the strong force holds atomic nuclei
together, the weak force tears them apart. Acting together, the
strong and weak forces create matter both De Novo in the
"Big Bang", and produce all the heavy elements of the periodic
table - in stars and supernovas, as well as during the later
stages of the "Big Bang ". The weak force produces the asymmetric
decay of electrically neutral leptoquarks during the early moments
of the "Big Bang", creating matter-only baryons (heavy particles
containing 3 quarks) that fuse together to produce all the atomic
elements of our cosmos. The weak force is the only force that can
produce asymmetric decays, and it is likewise the only force that
can produce and/or transform the identity of a single
elementary particle - other forces produce only
particle-antiparticle pairs (excepting only gravity in the extreme
case of "Hawking Radiation" in black holes). It is precisely the
capability of the weak force to produce elementary particle
"singlets" that requires the bizarre form/mechanism of this force,
with its massive "IVBs" ( "Intermediate Vector Bosons").
It is a universal fact (a "global" symmetry) that every electron
is absolutely identical to every other electron in the Cosmos -
and must be, if energy, charge, and symmetry are to be conserved.
And it's not only electrons: every elementary particle must be
absolutely identical to every other (of its type) no matter when
or where it was, is, or will be created. It is the task of the
weak force (and only the weak force) to produce these particles as
"singlets", that is, as individual particles, not as
particle-antiparticle pairs. The method used by the weak force
involves the very massive IVBs, which recreate the original
primordial conditions of energy-density in which these particles
were first produced. Every weak force transformation involving an
IVB is therefore a mini "Big Bang", a recreation of the birth
trauma of the Cosmos but reduced to the scale of an individual
elementary particle. (See: "The 'W' IVBs and
the Weak Force Mechanism"; see: "Introduction to the
Weak Force".)
The weak force charge is "identity" charge, also known as lepton
"number" (or "flavor") charge. (See: "Identity Charge
and the Weak Force".) The (nearly) massless neutrinos carry
this charge in its explicit form, while the massive leptons (the
electron, muon, tau) carry this charge in "hidden" form ("hidden"
because the identity charge involves handedness, which cannot be
strictly conserved by a massive particle). The neutrino's explicit
identity charge nevertheless balances the hidden identity charge
of the heavy leptons. Any newly created (single) massive lepton
must be accompanied by the appropriate neutrino to balance its
identity charge; hence the neutrino functions as a sort of
certificate which guarantees the mass, charge, spin, etc., of the
newly minted elementary particle conforms to the universal
standard. Neutrinos must also be emitted when leptons are
destroyed - the relationship between the massive lepton and its
paired neutrino is curiously analogous to the commonly presumed
relationship between the human body and soul.
Only elementary particles are paired with neutrinos; quarks have
none, as they are sub-elementary particles with fractional
charges. Their identity charges, like their fractional electric
charges, are conserved by the composite baryons which comprise
them ("baryon number" charge, which as we have seen is balanced by
a leptoquark anti-neutrino). In the modern universe, the baryon
neutrino can only be seen during proton decay - which
(fortunately) I presume commonly occurs only inside black holes
(if anything occurs there at all). The symmetry constraining the
weak force is just the global symmetry of identity (within type)
among all elementary particles ever created. An electron created
during the "Big Bang" can be "swapped out" with an electron
created today and no one can tell the difference. It should be
obvious that this symmetry is completely necessary for energy and
charge conservation and hence the orderly functioning of the
Cosmos.
For the role of the Higgs boson in all this, see: "The Higgs Boson and
the Weak Force IVBs"; see also "Table of the
Higgs Cascade"; see also "Introduction to the
Higgs Boson Papers". For a discussion of the Life Force
(Information Force) and the Information Pathway see: "The Information
Pathway"; "The
Information Ladder"; "The Human Connection";
"The Fractal
Organization of Nature". For a discussion of cosmological
issues, see: "A
Spacetime Map of the Universe".
The Maintenance of Charge
Values Through Time
Closely related to symmetry conservation via
absolute charge conservation (charge annihilation) is the
phenomenon of charge maintenance - the safeguarding of the value,
magnitude, quality and quantity of charge for an indefinite period
of time until full conservation (as via antimatter annihilation)
can be accomplished. The great and significant difference between
energy debts and symmetry debts is that the latter, as carried by
charge/spin/handedness, may be carried undamaged through an
indefinite duration of time until they are paid, whereas the
former must be paid immediately. Hence the mechanism of symmetry
debts as carried by absolutely conserved charges through time is
essential to a Cosmos such as ours that enjoys an evolutionary
development through an extended historical dimension.
Think of the difference between the electron's charge (a symmetry
debt) and its mass (an energy debt). The electron's mass is
an actual alternative form of the energy of light from which the
electron was made (bound electromagnetic energy VS free
electromagnetic energy - mcc = hv), whereas the electron's
charge just produces a blind force seeking its anti-charge, and is
not in any sense an alternative form of the symmetry debt it
actually represents - the lost dimensional symmetry of light
(acausal light has no asymmetric time dimension, whereas causal
matter does). While the rest mass of the electron cannot vary,
nevertheless because mass is an actual alternative (bound) form of
electromagnetic energy, the electron's effective mass can
vary to represent or accommodate additional energy inputs to the
electron, as for example energy inputs due to acceleration. The
election's charge however, cannot vary and accelerated charges
produce instead magnetic fields and radiation (synchrotron
radiation, Cherenkov radiation, radio and TV waves, etc.),
shunting the excess energy into alternative electromagnetic forms
without changing the actual magnitude of the electric charge. Such
"local gauge symmetry" effects are further discussed below.
But how are these charges (symmetry debts) carried unchanged
through aeons of time - from the "Big Bang" to the present? While
this is a much more complex function than simple charge
conservation via annihilation, it is nevertheless the specific and
daily task of each of the field vectors of the four forces. Our
universe is built to deal with this problem from the outset, or it
could not function - it could not conserve energy. It is why we
have such dualities as spacetime and electromagnetism, and why the
field vectors all seem to have one foot in the universe of matter
and the other in the universe of antimatter. It is likewise why
the "vacuum" is full of virtual particle-antiparticle pairs, in
effect a grand reservoir of charge making all kinds of
particle transformations possible. The photon of
electromagnetism is its own antiparticle; likewise the graviton (a
quantum unit of time or negative entropy); also the IVBs and the
Higgs boson of the weak force, taken together; and again as seen
in the gluon field of the strong force, which is composed of
color-anticolor charges in all combinations (Gell-Mann's strong
force), even including the meson field of quark-antiquark pairs
(Yukawa's strong force). These are the "gauge" fields of local
symmetry, which all act to maintain invariant the particular
symmetry they represent despite the uncertain and changing
environment in our realm of warped/curved metric and relative
(rather than absolute) motion, massive (rather than massless)
particles, and our "real" (historical) world of 4 dimensional
spacetime and causal (rather than acausal) relations among
particles.
We have seen how the massive IVB field vectors of the weak force
accomplish their task of safeguarding the identity charge and
invariant mass of elementary particles through the recreation of
the primordial environment of the "Big Bang"; other field vectors
have analogous compensatory effects and actions. The exchange of
the strong force gluon field permanently confines the fractionally
charged quarks to whole quantum-unit charge "packages" - the
baryons; the co-variance of time and space in relative motion
produces magnetic effects which compensate moving electrical
charges, while "warped" gravitational metrics maintain the
invariance of velocity "c", the "Interval", and causality via
similar mechanisms ("Lorentz Invariance" of Special and General
Relativity).
All the field vectors operate by exchanging force carriers or
bosons of their particular field, and all can be represented by
simple Feynman diagrams as well as complex mathematical equations.
Thus electrically charged particles exchange photons, massive
particles exchange gravitons (time quanta) with spacetime, quarks
exchange gluons, IVBs are exchanged between weakly interacting
(decaying, transforming) particles. All these activities of the
field vectors have a simple function: to maintain the magnitude,
quantity, and integrity of charges and the symmetry debts they
represent through time, including such fundamental gauges of
charge as "velocity c", the final arbiter of both causality and
symmetry.
But these "local gauge symmetries" - the symmetries of the "trees"
- have been extensively studied and formalized by the
"establishment". The reader should consult standard textbooks (or
Wikipedia - Google-search "local gauge symmetry") on these
subjects for further and more detailed mathematical information
regarding the action of the field vectors of the four forces with
regard to "Yang-Mills" theories of "local gauge symmetry",
"renormalized" force fields, and their crucial role in the
maintenance of charge and gauge magnitudes through time. This is
where physics gets complicated - as perfectly invariant charges
and particles derived from the ideal realm of light (as
symmetry/energy debts) are thrust into an imperfect realm of
relative motion, one-way time, and varying gravitational metrics,
in which they must nevertheless maintain the integrity and value
of their primal charges.
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