All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players
At first the infant
Then the whining schoolboy
And then the lover,
Sighing like a furnace, with a woeful ballad
Made to his mistress' eyebrows. Then a soldier,
Full of strange oaths and bearded like the pard,
Jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel,
Seeking the bubble Reputation
Pen in the cannon's mouth. And then the justice,
In fair round belly with good capon lin'd,
With eyes, severe and beard of formal cut,
Full of wise saws and modern instances;
And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts
Into the lean and slipper'd pantaloon,
With spectacles on nose and pouch on side;
His youthful hose well sav'd, a world too wide
For his shrunk shank, and his big manly voice,
Turning again toward childish treble, pipes
And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all,
That ends this strange eventful history,
Is second childishness and mere oblivion -
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste,
sans everything.
- Shakespeare, As You Like It, Act II
The ideas that poets glimpse and geniuses utter require a long time for the world to comprehend and use. Almost 400 years ago, Shakespeare spoke of the seven ages of man, and nearly a century ago, Freud pointed out five developmental
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periods of sexual libido. Despite the added insights of Erikson and Piaget, educators have been slow to realize that the theory of developmental stages provides the organizing focus for the field of educational psychology. Blocher in writing Developmental Guidance (1966) was one of the first to realize and apply this insight to the problems of counseling. It is the thesis of this chapter that the theory of developmental stages, when fully understood and accepted,will synthesize many now disparate aspects of the discipline, and will help to identify the growing stage of educational psychology with more clarity and resolution.
DEVELOPMENT AS A PARAMETER WITH DISCRETE LEVELS
We have been accustomed to thinking of development as if it behaved like growth - a smooth progression on an old- fashioned S-curve. But newer research suggests that this is not so; that instead, development is like a Fourier series, or a flight of locks, namely a staircase-like parameter of hierarchical nature with discrete levels. Now a parameter is a variable which takes on only a relatively small number of values, roughly spaced equally apart. Let us see how this model fits developmental process.
Stated in other words, our task is to determine the nature and direction of developmental change. But this change involves more than mere growth, for development is to growth as quality is to quantity. The apple enlarges, but it also ripens. We see this transformation clearly in the changes wrought by sexual maturation, but there are several other examples of developmental change, each important in forming the adult individual.
Lewin left our discipline a valuable tradition in borrowing so freely from the models of physical science. In understanding the principles of energy transformations, it may be useful to follow his lead and to consider an analogous situation from physics involving latent heat. Assume that we have one gram of water at -1000 C. We add 100 calories and heat it to 00 C, but it does not unfreeze from its icy form. To change to water will take 80 more calories, which is known as the latent heat of fusion. The 80 calories are applied and we now have water at 00 C. One hundred more calories are applied, and the water now heats to 1000 C, but it does not become steam. To effect that, 540 more calories must be applied to change water from the liquid to the gaseous state. We apply 540 more calories and our water now vaporizes. In raising the ice from -1000 C to steam at 1000 C, we have applied 200 calories to change temperature and 620 calories to change the state or form of the material, an amount over three times as large.
Why has three times as much energy been required to change state as to make an obvious change in temperature? The answer must lie in the added properties of the liquid and gaseous forms as contrasted with the solid. The binding of this energy results in a more complex formation and, hence, in such emergent properties of water as surface tension and solvency and kinetic energy in steam.
Our analogy suggests that developmental stages similarly bind energy which results in emergent properties. They are not mere vague areas on a smooth growth curve which shade into one another; they are as well defined and discrete as different levels of water in a flight of locks. Energy has been transformed and bound
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to escalate the developmental process from one level to another-just as energy is necessary to lift a canal boat in a lock-and this bound energy permits the more complex expressions, formations and emergent properties of the new stage. In short, older stages have been reorganized and reintegrated into the new form which has new emphasis and new characteristics. Their basic patterns have been superseded with new organization; it is not so much that their old order has been lost as that a new order has been emphasized. The same situation prevails in music when a theme originally played on a single orchestra] instrument is developed so that it is now heard on a choir of different instruments in a more complex form. The theme is not lost, but it is changed through elaboration and varying emphases and sequences.
Buy why should there be developmental stages at all? Why cannot development, like growth, be one smooth accretion? The answer seems to lie in the critical aspect of energy transformations within the individual, at least in the opinion of several noted theorists. According to Erikson (Evans, 1967, p. 13) Freud's original formulation of sexual developmental stages was based on "the imagery of a transformation of energy." Sullivan (1953) based his theory of self- group interaction of "dynamisms" which he defined as "the relatively enduring patterns of energy transformations which recurrently characterize interpersonal relations." And Arieti (1967, p. 334) notes that the primary process is not so much regression in the service of the ego but "an energy accessibility and availability."
The transformation and focusing of energy is the essence of both the developmental and the creative process. It is first necessary to focus energy through attention because the amount of energy available to the individual is not enough unless it is collected and not allowed to diffuse. Through the attention of the mind, this energy is focused so that it may be transformed and induce a change of state. The areas on which attention is focused are respectively first one then another of the tripartite modes of "the world," "I" and "thou". Otherwise the available energy would be weakened and diffused if expended upon all at the same time. The analog of an automobile battery supplying a high voltage spark to the different pistons in succession comes at once to mind. This sequential aspect of focusing suggests itself at once as the reason for periodicity in developmental stage theory.
PERIODIC ASPECTS OF THE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
It is surprising how few researchers or theorists have considered periodicity as a function of human development, despite the ample opportunity for its observation both in the natural elements (the Mendeleev periodic table) and in human biology (the menstrual cycle in women). Periodicity occurs when the same pattern of events is seen to run through a higher development as has been contained in a Corresponding pattern from a lower sequence. Mathematically, 1-n isomorphisms are discovered due to the influence of two overriding independent
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variables. In the periodic table of the elements, these are the numbers of electrons in the shells and the number of protons in the nucleus. Awareness of these variables helps us to fill spaces in such a model and hence to make predictions and draw conclusions and extrapolations. This must be done with caution because, while nature is generally orderly, it may provide some surprises since the world of experience is often more complex than man's anthropomorphic view of it. Even the periodic table reveals this in its divagations among the rare earths. While being aware of the possibility of periodicity in human development, which would point to underlying variables, attempts should not be made to fit the theory of developmental process into a Procrustean bed. Thus it is possible to speculate that since Freud's five affective developmental stages fit rather neatly the chronological ages of Piaget's five cognitive stages, and since Erikson has built four more stages out of the last Freudian (genital) stage, some future theorist may find four associated cognitive stages in adulthood-it is possible, but we should be unhappy if it does not quite match.
The goodness of fit of the Freudian (sexual libido), Eriksonian (ego strength) and Piagetian (cognitive development) theories to developmental stages is remarkable, however. When these various views are brought together synoptically, one begins to sense periodic rhythms, which reveal that the whole conceptualization of developmental stage theory is more significant than has been heretofore realized. Indeed, these stages may be divided into a tripartite grouping, depending upon the direction of the attention of the psyche, whether outward toward the world, inward toward the self or with love toward another person.
Figure I clearly shows the periodic nature of developmental stages, consisting of triads of stages of infancy, youth and adulthood. The horizontal triads consist in reality of three categories: the world, the ego and the other, with the third personal pronoun (it, they) characteristic of the first stage, the first personal pronoun (1) characteristic of the second, and the second personal pronoun (thou) of the third. We have dubbed the columns 'latency," "identity" and "creativity," respectively, and indicated the Eriksonian and Piagetian names for the stages-taking the liberty of filling in some guesses for the cognitive aspects of the latter three stages. Thus the diagram becomes an open-ended periodic table of developmental stages which may be used as a model for testing and hypothesis-making in regard to developmental process.
Each stage has a special relationship and affinity for another three stages removed from it. Stages 1, 4, and 7 (trust, industry and generativity) are noticeable for a peculiarly thing-oriented, sexually latent aspect dealing with the relationship of the individual with his world of experience. In stage I it is the world of precepts; in stage 4, the size, shape, form and color of things and what one can make out of them; in stage 7, the world of significant others (such as children) who are not love objects in a libidinal sense. This may also broaden to the world of ideas, formulas, productions, art creations and other "mental children." Freud by naming the fourth stage "latency" intuitively grasped the thingoriented, nonaffectively valent nature of this stage and its columnar family. The drop in sexual interest as the child "cools" it through the oedipal resolution entering stage 4 is particularly noticeable. He literally stops trying to "make people"
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FIGURE I. DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES (AFTER ERIKSON AND PIAGET)
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in favor of making things. Not so easily spotted-because often adults have difficulty in entering the generativity period-is the sexual abatement in favor or nurturance of children or sublimation to create some innovative production which occurs with parenthood or mastery of some medium. It is as if the "name of the game" changes so that the primary attention is focused off libidinal drives to other more thing-oriented objects.
A second common aspect of the first, fourth and seventh stages is the immersion in the world of the senses. It is a practical time when things get done and changes occur. In combination with this regard for the external world, there is a certain calmness or coolness of the ego which results in a lack of selfconsciousness. The infant, the boy and the parent are so busy with their activities, so completely absorbed in experiencing, that they have little time to assess their feelings or to search for their identity. After the tasks of this stage are completed, they will return to a new identity search on more advanced levels, fortified with their accomplishments in the real world.
By contrast with the previous, the second, fifth and eighth stages are ego bound, ego oriented, and ego circumscribed. They are all about "me" (my identity, my existence and interpersonal relationships and my salvation). They are times of searching introspection, of withdrawal rather than return, of defiance of authority, rather than obedience to it, and of "marching to the music of a different drum." In each of these periods man tries to come to terms with himself. In stage 2 he finds his identity or ego, in stage 5 he redefines it in terms of what he can do as a young adult, and in stage 8 he again redefines it in terms of the meaning of his life and death in the cosmos.
Parents and society often find those involved in this set of stages rather difficult to live with. Whether it is the infant's negativism, the adolescent's clamor for independence or the budding saint's march to the sea to make salt, the attitude and action of the individual is frequently anathema to authority figures, be it active resistance or passive disdain.
For the individual in these times of withdrawal, it is very easy to believe that no one understands us, that we are somehow different, unique and incongruent with the rest of humanity. We often spend too many hours in selfexamination, either in reproach or adulation with "the world forgotten and by the world forgot." If the world is "too much with us" in stages 1, 4 and 7, it is too little with us ofttimes in stages 2, 5 and 8, for we are busy examining our own navels. One consequence of this overemphasis on introspection is a kind of moodiness which results from the discrepancy between what the ego wants itself to be and what it finds it can be and do.
Stages 3 and 6 (initiative and intimacy) deal with the love relationship and its expansion from narcissistic self-love through oedipal love of parents to generalized heterosexual love, to fixation on some individual person. (For all we know there may exist stage 9, where agape love, in the manner of a Buddha or Messiah embraces all mankind.) Since love is requisite for creation on a mental as well as a physical plane, it is not surprising that stages 3 and 6 have special interest for us as students of creativity. We have already described in chapter I how creativity first develops in the initiative stage from the control over the
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environment experienced through the affectional approach of the opposite-sexed parent. A similar feeling occurs in the sixth stage (intimacy), when adolescent creativity is normally enhanced through the inspiration of the opposite-sexed beloved figure. In the latter instance, however, biological consummation can in some cases reduce the high energy potential aroused so that it is more often when this consummation is delayed, or prevented at least in part, that we get great art, music and literature. Obviously this kind of situation differs with different individuals, some of whom (like Elizabeth Barrett Browning) find fulfillment in love and block in the frustration of it.
In consequence of the connection between love in our lives and creativity, if we want to become creative, we should put more love into our lives. Most of us live on a starvation diet so far as love is concerned. What man could not create if he were universally admired, valued and inspired? This principle is not to imply that sexual freedom or promiscuity is a prerequisite for creative action, but it does suggest that more openness and demonstrativeness in love and affection in all our social relationships, more awareness of our feeling aspects and less inhibition of them might open up doors now closed by custom.
Barron (1968) reports that creative persons find other ways to deal with impulse than suppressing it. Who has not found inspiration in the unexpected valuing of himself by another? Indeed, this phenomenon and the power release that accompanies it is one of the great sources of energy in group therapy sessions or in Rogerian basic encounter groups.
In saying that stages 3 and 6 are those in which the I-thou relationships and creativity are particularly emphasized, I do not mean to imply that creativity is completely absent at other stages of development. It is just that the developmental process naturally emphasizes these factors at these times. Love and hence creativity may enter our lives environmentally at any time, and to the degree that one is found in abundance the other is likely to be present. In these instances, something personal has occurred-some vivid experience or significant relationship not predicated in the developmental sequence-and it is this personal good fortune, rather than the developmental syndrome, which has released creative power.
If latency stages 1, 4 and 7 may be described as "cool" and the identity stages of 2, 5 and 8 are introspective, then stages 3 and 6 may best be characterized as loving, spontaneous and joyful. Here affectional impulses are at their height; here one gives the identity one has just discovered to another; here the world and the self become fused in the wonder of the beloved-the up phase when all goes well and one is comfortable and sure of one's beloved results in great happiness. But when one is alone, and things are scary, without one's beloved (who may be paying too much attention to a younger sibling or a rival lover), then one is consumed with jealousy and lives in the depths of despair.
The key question of both the third and sixth stages is, "Am I in control of my environment through the aegis of my beloved or is my environment in control of me?" Developmental tasks of different periods have a different flavor, however, even if they refer to the same basic issue. The possessive jealous oedipal love of a son for his mother in the third stage is different from the heterosexual
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genital intimacy of a young man in the sixth stage. Both of these stages give creativity an extra impetus, but the two kinds of creativity have different flavors and characteristics. This fact has led many researchers to note that the child's creativity is not the same as the creative production of young adults. The creativity of the third (initiative) stage is exhibitionistic, dramatic, often repetitive and generally fragmentary. The creativity of a young adult is characterized by more unity, coherence, daring and brilliance. It is truly novel, and often displays scope, mastery and vigor. Whether the one develops into the other depends, of course, on environmental conditions. A good start helps the growing child to a more open style of life. Environmental deprivation, however, may force him to become destructive or hostile or fall by the wayside. Even too much success in the initiative period may give his creativity a "kooky" turn which does not allow him to integrate it into future development or come to grips with the disciplinary skills of the industry period.
Another youth may blossom in late adolescence without the benefits of narcissistic creativity because, having learned his basic skills and formal operations well, he has somehow been able to break through into the creative ground. Longitudinal research may eventually show that form prevails in general and that a good start in the third stage is the best assurance of another successful found in the sixth stage. Incidentally, this kind of longitudinal follow-up is badly needed research. One becomes creative as a by-product of the inspiration of the beloved. One strives to please, and in pleasing the loved one, pulls things out of the preconscious that one hardly knew were there. Or alternatively, because one's mental health is improved, one finds the preconscious teeming with treasure to share with the beloved, and these goodies often bubble forth without conscious effort.
Whatever has potential for creativity has potential for destructivity also. Vishnu and Shiva are but different aspects of Brahma. We do not find it surprising that the young child creates and destroys practically in the same breath. For some reason, however, we are surprised that university students, deep in the intimacy period, who are denied their creative outlets through stereotyped teaching of obsolete curriculum and authoritarianism, turn to destructiveness in trying to express themselves. Our Puritan ethic of inhibition is also offended when the same youth demonstrate the more undiscriminating and public forms of love and affection. Perhaps we would do better to ask if there is a message for us in this unacceptable behavior and to consider what we might do to make higher education more innovative and more humane.
Just as one finds in the horizontal variable in the Mendeleev periodic table of the elements a basic explication of nature in the number of electrons in the outer shell, so one would expect to find similar basic properties in the column headings of our periodic table of developmental process. It is evident from several sources that this is so. What has been disclosed here depends, however, on one's frame of reference. A semanticist or grammarian would note that we are dealing with the personal pronouns: first person, the self; second person, the other; third person, the world. A religiously oriented individual, noting that our column heads can be described as ego-presence, creative-love and thing-latency would naturally
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think of the Trinity: Father, Son and Holy Ghost. From a psychological point of view, it is not so much that these theological terms are valid as that they represent an early attempt, necessarily clothed in religious language, to approximate three fundamental aspects through which man's mind apprehends reality. The three developmental thrusts are continuous but with different emphases recurring periodically in elaborated and elevated forms.
OPEN-ENDED PERIODIC TABLE OF DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
One of the consequences of setting the Mendeleev table up in periodic form was that it was left open ended with blank spaces for elements not discovered at the time of its publication. Mendeleev, indeed, predicted the existence of helium, then undiscovered. Spaces for other heavier atoms were left blank until filled in by the results of discoveries in radioactivity and atomic research. It is evident that an open-ended model is most fruitful in being able to accommodate without modification new discoveries in science. It is indeed heuristic in the best sense of the word.
Setting up the developmental stages in periodic style immediately confronts us with a similar fascinating problem in open endedness. Are there rarer or as yet unknown stages of cognitive development to go with the already found Eriksonian stages? Are there advanced affective stages which have rarely if ever been observed in any human? How do such putative stages fit the literature of creativity, psychedelia and illumination? We enter here on speculation early developed by Bucke (1929) in Cosmic Consciousness, but further discussion of these possibilities will have to be deferred until chapter 7.
Before leaving this matter, however, it should be noted that periodicity is a method employed often to secure the occurrence of a function whose continual operation would place too much tax on the energies of the individual. The breeding season or rut in animals is a good example. By this means a sequence of process is devised, which allows for the orderly discharge of activities which could not take place continuously.
When traffic flowing smoothly and constantly along two intersecting highways reaches an intersection at a grade, some change has to take place. A traffic light permits the flow of traffic first on one road and then on the other. This cycle is necessary not only at a highway junction but wherever full communication flow would overload a given station.
It is so with man, especially with regard to those functions which would either require too much expenditure of energy or which are emergent in the sense that they are grasped only by superior individuals for a short time when they are in top mental health. Because man cannot apprehend all aspects of reality at once, reality has to be ordered by man into a cyclic or periodic succession of partial views. Thus in physics we get the wave and the corpuscular theory of light. We find the mind alternatively using cognitive and affective means to sense the world. The periodic aspects of developmental stage theory appear necessary for similar reasons.
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CHARACTERISTIC TASKS AND STRENGTHS
The changing emphases of developmental stages may be compared to the performance of flamenco dancers. All the dancers are on stage throughout the performance, yet each holds the spotlight at different times as he "does his stuff," to the applause of the others who form the chorus. So it is with developmental process: each aspect is always present, but each different characteristic comes front and center at its appropriate time and is emphasized while the others act as a kind of background chorus.
Thus these stages can be regarded as the stations of the cross of the labors of Hercules, each designed to impart a different aspect of grace or valor of the developing individual. Like the ordeals of a candidate for knighthood or the vigils of a novitiate for a monastery, each act differentiates a certain quality and, when accomplished, contributes this particular strength to the whole personality. As each new task is successfully resolved, a new strength is incorporated into the individual; consequently the person becomes many faceted and capable of interchanges between existing qualities and new powers (such as a telephone switchboard can connect new subscribers to the generality in a developing suburb). If a task is not well performed, a certain characteristic weakness remains. Missing basic mathematical skills in the third grade may leave one ever reluctant to balance one's checkbook.
Even humor often reveals our sense of the importance of developmental tasks and the consequent embarrassment of failures at them. For example, walking, talking and toilet training are major tasks of the second (autonomy) period. Uneasiness about and half-remembered struggle for success in these tasks give point to jokes about someone slipping on a banana peel, stuttering or having a bladder accident.
Each stage is powered by the individual's drive for mastery in tasks appropriate to the stage. Thus in the fourth period (industry) the child has an innate drive to master the alphanumeric system, to build and manipulate tool objects, etc. The available energy of the individual is focused toward accomplishing the critical tasks of the period. When this is not accomplished, there must be powerful inhibitors in the individual himself (such as the accumulation of previous failures) or from the cultural mores, which may interfere by imposing tasks which are irrelevant (such as enforced military service) or contrary to the essential thrust of developmental progress. To succeed at the tasks of a particular stage produces mental health; to fail them or be thwarted in attempting them is apt to produce mental illness or at best hostility and other negative emotions. Often destructiveness and delinquency in youth may be related to this cultural cause.
Not all failures are culturally induced, however. An individual may avoid attending to or may ignore the characteristic tasks of the stage he should be in by rehearsing or repeating his success (or lack of it) in the tasks of the previous level. Thus lonely young adolescents expend all their energy on school achievement, while immature young men shy away from heterosexual intimacy to continue their search for an identity. Equally often, adults in the generativity
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period play hide-and-seek games instead of turning their interests toward the nurturance of children or innovative production, while matrons of fifty are still child and grandchild oriented instead of becoming altruistic long after their children have outgrown and rejected them.
A similar lag is seen in the repetition of cognitive tasks one stage below developmental level. Thus those in the sixth stage (intimacy) will frequently be satisfied with formal operations (convergent production) rather than risk divergent thinking and creativity. Moodiness may be a sign that the ego is having trouble with the present task, and boredom may indicate that the individual would like to return and toy with simpler tasks of a previous stage.
DIFFERENTIAL DEVELOPMENT
Human development is orderly and sequential in that measurements within a developmental area on different individuals vary less than the mean difference between developmental stages. This statement by no means requires that these individual differences become null; hence differential developmental patterns do exist (there is "wobble" in the track), and differential developmental rates can be found. We could restate this last point by saying that although we customarily use chronological age as the independent variable in developmental analysis, organismic age would be a more exact substitution. Piaget conceded that his stages were "only approximate" chronologically and could perhaps be accelerated or delayed by environmental stimulation or deficit.
The implications of differential development cannot be fully analyzed here, but it may be instructive to give some examples of it. The first example chosen has to do with a comparison of maturity in the gifted and average adolescent.
In comparison with the average adolescent who soon starts an active sex life, the gifted adolescent (who usually matures physically earlier) goes through a kind of latency period in which heterosexual expression may be inhibited for several years. Kinsey and his colleagues (1948) indeed found striking differences between boys of different classes in this regard, and reported that when a boy from a low socioeconomic background was upwardly mobile, his sex habits from the earliest times he could remember were those of the class into which he was going to migrate.
Adolescent sexual latency in the superior individual is a further example of the "Foetalization of the Ape" hypothesis, as we have extended it, in that the superior individual is allowed to "stretch out" these developmental stages. It is also an example of "feminization" (which we shall discuss in chapter 6) to enable the individual to resist the biological aging, and secure a larger percentage of the life span spent in the more creative phases.
As seen in figure 2, the gifted adolescent is both more mature and less mature than the average adolescent. He is more mature when compared directly with his age mate. He is less mature, however, when the ratio between his present and potential maturity is compared with the ratio between the average adolescent's present and potential maturity. In short, there is more of him left to grow.
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FIGURE II. THE GIFTED ADOLESCENT
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There is a hierarchy of the degree of prehension the individual holds on different factors of the intellect. Cognition- memory of units and classes are much more strongly held and for longer periods than, for example, divergent production and evaluation of semantic implications. Under stress, alcohol, fatigue, psychosis and the like, the higher functioning is lost in a selective order, retaining verbalization to the last. Hence some higher abilities such as creativity and other exotic aspects of intellect may appear tenuously and only spasmodically in individuals at their most propitious times of health or development and may be lost with the onset of senility, fatigue, disease or other untoward cause. This kind of operation also contributes to the effect of differential development.
Another example of differential development concerns the availability of energy for escalating developmental process from one level to the next. To produce this development, energy must be fed into the system. This is as true of individual development as it is of the latent heat of fusion or the excitation of electrons to higher orbits. This energy requirement results in some degree of strain at the jump points. There may not be enough energy available for both growth and adjustment at the same time. Perhaps the child, retooling mentally from the concrete-operations to the form al- operations period will suffer a shortage of available energy in the process, and this will be reflected as Torrance (1964) demonstrated as a creativity slump around the fourth grade.
SUMMARY
The central thesis of this chapter revolves around the transformation or refocus of energy in developmental stages. The need for energy focusing and shifts in attention lead to periodicity in developmental stages which have important consequences. This model produces a synoptic fusion of Eriksonian and Piagetian stages arranged in periodic three-cycle fashion in which the individual's concern with the world, I and thou, recurs at three levels of maturity. Each stage has characteristic properties. Important for our purposes among these properties are the creative aspects of stage 3 (initiative) and stage 6 (intimacy). Guesses are hazarded concerning higher cognitive stages to fit the affective stages named by Erikson. Finally there is comment and example of development in differential form at various levels.
Implied but not yet clarified are certain aspects of stage development which we have named escalation. These aspects will be analyzed in chapter 3.